Unveiling the complex interaction of inflammation and cytokine release syndrome
Thermo Fisher Scientific provides a variety of high-quality immunoassay solutions for inflammation and cytokine release syndrome research. The offering covers convenient ELISA kits and spans to multiplex solution assays that enable the study of biological analytes and processes that are implicated in inflammation.
Overview of Inflammation and Cytokine Storm
As part of the immune response, inflammation plays an important role in defending the body against pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites. However, the inappropriate activation of inflammatory processes is an underlying contributor to many common pathological conditions. For example, autoimmune conditions arise when our immune system mistakes our cells or tissues for pathogens and attacks them. In addition, studies show that tumor proliferation and metastasis may occur when inflammatory cytokines create a microenvironment conducive to cancer progression. Key biomarkers involved in inflammation and immune response are shown in Figure 1.
Acute versus chronic inflammation
Acute inflammation is a short-lived response that is characterized by extravasation of leukocytes, erythrocytes, and plasma components into the injured tissue. If left unchecked, the acute inflammatory process can lead to chronic inflammation. Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is characterized primarily by tissue infiltration by lymphocytes and macrophages. Chronic inflammation is closely associated with allergy, atherosclerosis, cancer, arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease, as well as autoimmune diseases. The process of acute inflammation is well defined, but the causes of chronic inflammation and its associated molecular and cellular pathways are still not well understood.
The critical balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators
The overall effect of an inflammatory response is dictated by the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 beta, IL-6, and TNF alpha are responsible for early responses and amplify inflammatory reactions, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines, which include IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13, have the opposite effect in that they limit the inflammatory reactions. The increasing complexity of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine networks has made it crucial to examine them in relevant functional groups rather than individually.
Hyper-Inflammation and cytokine storm
A typical immune response involves production of cytokines that orchestrate the differentiation of lymphocytes based on the type of pathogen being cleared. Ultimately the immune system self-regulates and shuts down once the infection is resolved. In some cases, however, the immune response does not shut down, and there is an overproduction of inflammatory cytokines that causes systemic damage to host cells.
The cytokine storm or cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is characterized by an aggressive pro-inflammatory response in combination with an insufficient anti-inflammatory response, which results in the loss of homeostasis of the immune response. The key factors identified in the pathology of a cytokine storm are TNF alpha, Interferons, IL-1 beta, MCP-1 (CCL2), and most importantly IL-6 [1].
Activation of mainly T cells or lysis of immune cells induces a release of IFN gamma or TNF alpha. This leads to the activation of macrophages, dendritic cells, other immune cells, and endothelial cells. After activation, these cells further release proinflammatory cytokines. Large amounts of Interleukin 6 (IL-6) are produced by macrophages and endothelial cells, activating T cells and other immune cells and creating a positive feedback-loop that results in a cytokine storm, inducing the release of many more cytokines and chemokines but also upregulating acute phase proteins. The resulting cytokine storm syndromes are heterogeneous but have the described immune dysregulation in common, leading to hyperinflammation, fever, cytopenia, splenomegaly, hepatitis, coagulopathy, and may result in fatal multisystem organ dysfunction.
Infectious diseases associated with a hyperreactive immune system may be caused by different pathogens, such as bacteria (e.g. toxic shock syndrome (TSS)) and viruses (e.g. Influenza, Epstein-Barr Virus, SARS and SARS CoV-2). In addition, the cytokine storm has been described in therapeutic environments such as immunotherapy and CAR-T cell therapy in cancer. Treatment of patients with therapeutic monoclonal antibodies may stimulate a massive cytokine release syndrome leading to life threatening side effects of immunotherapy [2]. Exposure to organic pollutants could elicit a hyper reactive immune response while exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to increased serum levels of cytokines associated with a cytokine storm [3].
Figure 1. Key players in inflammation and immune response. Inflammation research is a large area of study that involves many cell types, cytokines, chemokines, and other biological targets. The influence of different cytokines on cell types can elicit many types of immunological responses, from fevers to infections to anaphylaxis.
Learn more about cytokine storms
Inflammation-specific ELISA Kits
Inflammation and cytokine release syndrome (CRS) are complex processes that play crucial roles in many diseases and conditions, including autoimmune disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. To support inflammation and cytokine storm research, different types of ELISA kits are available. By measuring the levels of specific cytokines and inflammatory markers, researchers can gain valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of these conditions and develop novel therapeutic strategies.
Invitrogen ELISA kits are user-friendly, providing detailed instructions for sample preparation, assay procedure, and data analysis. They are compatible with a variety of sample types, including serum, plasma, cell culture supernatants, and tissue lysates, offering flexibility for researchers working with diverse biological matrices. These kits provide a reliable and accurate method to measure the levels of various cytokines and inflammatory markers in biological samples. Targets include pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1 beta, IL-6, and TNF alpha, as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 (Table 1). A few examples of published data using cytokine and inflammation ELISA kits are highlighted in Table 2.
In addition, high sensitivity formats are also available, which have been specifically designed to detect and quantify low levels of cytokines and inflammatory markers in biological samples. Researchers can achieve even greater accuracy and precision in their measurements, allowing for more detailed analysis and interpretation of their data. Figure 2 shows standard curve of Human IL-8/NAP-1 using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit and IL-8 Human ELISA Kit, Ultrasensitive.
Search inflammation ELISA kits
Learn more about ELISA kits and components
Popular inflammation research protein targets and ELISA performance data
Table 1. View our ELISA kits for the following popular targets:
Figure 2. Representative data using Invitrogen IL-8 Human ELISA and Ultrasensitive ELISA. ELISA was performed using human interleukin 8 (Hu IL-8) ranging from 0–1,000 pg/ml (0, 15.6, 31.2, 62.5, 125, 250, 500, and 1,000 pg/mL) using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit and 0–12.5 pg/ml (0, 0.39, 0.78, 1.56, 3.12, 6.25, 12.5, 25 pg/mL) using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit, Ultrasensitive. Absorbance was measured at 450 nm and standard curve was plotted.
Table 2. List of publications highlighting Invitrogen ELISA kits used in cytokine storm and inflammation research.
| Reference | Publication Summary | Target/s | Testing method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Li et al. 2023 | The level of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-6 in lung tissue and serum were measured and multifunctional nanoparticle was developed that could be used for the treatment of pneumonia and sepsis by alleviating cytokine storms. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Rat ELISA Kit |
IL-6 | IL-6 Rat ELISA Kit | ||
| Rubas et al. 2024 | Study of obesity-related post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) to examine immune activity and gut microbiome dysbiosis. Multiple biomarkers were assessed and proinflammatory immune profiling was performed using ELISA and Luminex. Results indicated high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein as a candidate biomarker of PASC, with potential applications for risk assessment and targeted therapies. | BAFF | BAFF Human Instant ELISA Kit |
CRP | CRP Human Instant ELISA Kit | ||
| Kang et al. 2023 | Analysis of cytokines in severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) and COVID-19 patients and their implications in hyperinflammation and cytokine release syndrome. | TGF beta | |
| Investigation of effects of spike protein on human lung macrophage (HLM) activation and involvement of HLMs in lung injury, immunological dysfunction, and respiratory disease. | IL-1 beta | ||
| Huo et al. 2023 | Study of the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of melatonin on Influenza A virus (IAV) H1N1 infection. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Mouse ELISA Kit |
| IL-1 beta | IL-1 beta Mouse ELISA Kit | ||
| IL-6 | IL-6 Mouse ELISA Kit | ||
| Histamine | Histamine Competitive ELISA Kit | ||
| Tryptase | Human Tryptase beta-2/TPSB2 ELISA Kit | ||
| Su et al. 2020 | Identification and screening of potential anti-inflammatory small molecules to find effective low-toxic drugs to mitigate cytokine storm syndrome (CSS). This study led to the discovery of two anti-cytokine storm agents, entecavir and imipenem that significantly inhibit the secretion of TNF alpha and other cytokines in mouse model. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Mouse ELISA Kit |
Inflammation research ProQuantum high sensitivity immunoassays
ProQuantum immunoassays are ready-to-use kits that provide an easy and fast method of measuring target-specific protein analytes with high specificity and sensitivity using very less amount of sample. These assays utilize proximity-based amplification technology to combine antigen-antibody binding for analyte detection with qPCR signal amplification to achieve a simple yet powerful next-generation protein quantitation platform.
Invitrogen ProQuantum immunoassay kits for popular targets such as IL-6, IL-8, TNF alpha etc. implicated in inflammation and cytokine storm research are listed in Table 3. Standard curve of IL-8 using curve for IL-8 Human ProQuantum Immunoassay Kit is shown in Figure 3.
Find inflammation-related ProQuantum assays
Learn more about how the ProQuantum immunoassays work
Read BioProbes Journal article: Introducing ProQuantum High-Sensitivity Immunoassays—The new generation of target-specific protein quantitation
Popular inflammation research protein targets and ProQuantum assay performance data
Table 3. Inflammation-related ProQuantum immunoassays. View our ProQuantum immunoassay kits for the following popular targets:
Figure 3. Representative standard curve for Human IL-8/NAP-1. The standard curve for IL-8 Human ProQuantum Immunoassay Kit shows a broad dynamic range (0.0128–5,000 pg/mL) of IL-8 protein.
Cytokine storm and inflammation ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays
Invitrogen ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays provide a comprehensive range of panels to study inflammation and cytokine profile. These assays allow researchers to simultaneously measure up to 80 soluble immune biomarkers in a single sample and precisely quantify their expression levels in biological samples, such as blood or tissue, with high sensitivity and specificity. A few examples of published data using inflammation and cytokine panels are highlighted in Table 4.
The multiplex capability of ProcartaPlex assays significantly improves efficiency and reduces sample volume requirements, allowing for cost-effective and time-efficient cytokine profiling. Since many different causes and pathologic conditions for the induction of a cytokine storm exist, and not all syndromes involving cytokine release result in the same pathogenic cytokine profile, it is important to analyze the level of a broader panel of immunomodulatory markers to get the full picture of the immune status of a patient.
Select one of our preconfigured panels described in Table 5 or use the Panel Configurator below to customize your own specific panel.
ProcartaPlex Panel Configurator
Learn more about ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays
Table 4. List of publications highlighting Invitrogen ProcartaPlex inflammation and cytokine panels.
| Reference | Publication summary | ProcartaPlex Panels used (Custom/Preconfigured) |
|---|---|---|
Investigating the effect of a single fentanyl overdose in mice reveals prolonged cardiopulmonary dysregulation and significant dysregulated cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor concentrations. | ||
| Kessel et al. 2021 | Definition and validation of serum biomarkers for differentiation of rheumatic conditions in children such as macrophage activation syndrome and inherited cytotoxicity defects (primary or secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis). This study aims to define treatment plans and reduce cytokine storm complications. | Custom ProcartaPlex Design |
| Lapuente et al. 2022 | Evaluation of safety and efficacy of PRS CK STORM as an intravenous drug to prevent and treat the cytokine storm associated with infectious processes, including COVID-19. | ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine/Chemokine/Growth Factor Panel 1, 45plex |
| Trifonova et al. 2023 | Study of inflammatory biomarkers in COVID-19 patients and correlation of lymphopoietic, proinflammatory, Th1, Th2, regulatory cytokines, and chemokines with disease severity. | ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Panel 1B, 25plex |
| ProcartaPlex Human Chemokine Panel 1, 9plex | ||
| Verna et al. 2021 | Comprehensive map of the inflammatory response to LPS by myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and study of the modulatory effect of quercetin exposure in mDCs and pDCs. | ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 36plex |
| Musiu et al. 2022 | Investigation of the pathophysiology of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) in mice and human samples and demonstration of the pivotal role of FLIP-expressing myeloid cells as a driver of CRS. | ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Panel 1A, 36plex |
| ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Panel 1B, 25Plex |
“I had a positive experience using the Invitrogen ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Monitoring Panel, 48plex and intend to use more in the future. I always looked forward to running the plate, because it was extremely simple and short. While our initial study design did not include a ton of analytes, we were able to assay more than twice what we had budgeted for. I would not have dreamt of looking at some of the analytes in the kit I ran, but they’ve completely changed my understanding of cardiac inflammation after fentanyl overdose survival.”
―Mackenzie Newman, Ph.D., M.Sc
Bioimaging and Applied Research Core (BARC) Manager
Virginia Commonwealth University
Table 5. Preconfigured ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassay panels for inflammation and cytokine storm research.
| Product Name | Size | Cat. No. |
| Human Cytokine Assays | ||
ProcartaPlex Human Immune Response Panel, 80plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Immune Monitoring Panel, 65plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine/Chemokine/Growth Factor Convenience Panel 1, 45plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 34plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Storm Panel, 21plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Inflammation Panel, 20plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
| Mouse Cytokine Assays | ||
ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Response Panel, 64plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Monitoring Panel, 48plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 36plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
Cytokine storm and inflammation QuantiGene multiplex immunoassays
QuantiGene assays are highly sensitive and specific for the detection and quantification of DNA and RNA targets. This technology utilizes branched DNA signal amplification to enable the measurement of gene expression levels in a variety of sample types, including blood, tissue, and cell lysates. Researchers can measure up to 80 genes in a single sample that focus on inflammation and cytokine release syndrome and immune response, including cytokines, chemokines, receptors, and other key regulatory molecules. A few examples of published data using QuantiGene to study inflammation and cytokine storm research are highlighted in Table 6.
There are several advantages to bead-based assays over traditional methods of gene expression analysis. QuantiGene provides a highly multiplexed approach, allowing for the simultaneous measurement of multiple targets in a single sample using the same Luminex xMAP technology as ProcartaPlex. This capability not only helps save time and resources but also provides a more comprehensive understanding of gene expression patterns. The assay is also highly sensitive, enabling the detection of low-abundance targets with high precision.
QuantiGene gene expression assays are versatile tools that can be customized to help meet your specific research needs. You can choose from a selection of preconfigured panels, each targeting a specific set of genes or pathways of interest (Table 7) or use the Panel Configurator below to create your own customized panel.
Learn more about QuantiGene multiplex immunoassays
Table 6. List of publications highlighting QuantiGene assays for studying cytokine storm and inflammation.
| Reference | Publication summary |
| Saulle et al. 2023 | Salivary miRNA profiles were examined in COVID-19 patients with different diseases severities. Cytokine storm was more prevalent in severe patients, where mRNA levels of 40 genes were tested in PBMCs using a custom QuantiGene Plex panel. |
| Chan et al. 2022 | Evaluation of a therapeutic combinatorial agent that elicits broad innate immune responses such production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. A custom QuantiGene Plex panel was used to observe transcriptional changes of cytokine and chemokines in mice. |
| Feng et al. 2019 | Study of how interferon-beta therapy corrects gene dysregulation in MS, along with correcting cytokine storm during remission and attacks. QuantiGene assays were used to measure RNA levels of cytokines and chemokines in treated and untreated MS patients, along with healthy controls. |
| Cappelletti et al. 2023 | Investigation of the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on human iPSC-derived motor neurons. QuantiGene assays were used to analyze viral RNA genes in infected motor neurons and were found to significantly alter the genetic profile of associated inflammatory response. |
| Meadows et al. 2018 | Fibrotic, inflammation, and IFN-induced genes in kidneys were analyzed using a custom QuantiGene panel to assess the impact of a potential treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus. |
Table 7. Preconfigured QuantiGene gene expression multiplex immunoassay panels for inflammation research.
| Product Name | Size (96-well) | Cat. No. |
| Human Immune and Inflammation Panels | ||
QuantiGene Plex Human Immune Response Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-10080 |
| 3 plates | QGP-280-10080 | |
| 10 plates | QGP-380-10080 | |
QuantiGene Plex Human PanCancer Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-HUPANCANCER |
3 plates | QGP-280-HUPANCANCER | |
10 plates | QGP-380-HUPANCANCER | |
QuantiGene Plex Human Virus-Host Panel, 50-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-HUVIRHOST1 |
3 plates | QGP-HUVIRHOST3 | |
10 plates | QGP-HUVIRHOST10 | |
QuantiGene Plex Human Housekeeping Gene Panel, 30-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-130-HUHKPANEL |
3 plates | QGP-230-HUHKPANEL | |
10 plates | QGP-330-HUHKPANEL | |
| Mouse Immune and Inflammation Panels | ||
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Immune Response Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-20064 |
3 plates | QGP-280-20064 | |
10 plates | QGP-380-20064 | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse PanCancer Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-MSPANCANCER |
3 plates | QGP-280-MSPANCANCER | |
10 plates | QGP-380-MSPANCANCER | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Virus-Host Panel, 50-plex Target list: | 1 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST1 |
3 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST3 | |
10 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST10 | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Housekeeping Gene Panel, 27-plex Target list: | 1 plates | QGP-127-MSHKPANEL |
| 3 plates | QGP-227-MSHKPANEL | |
| 10 plates | QGP-327-MSHKPANEL | |
Overview of Inflammation and Cytokine Storm
As part of the immune response, inflammation plays an important role in defending the body against pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites. However, the inappropriate activation of inflammatory processes is an underlying contributor to many common pathological conditions. For example, autoimmune conditions arise when our immune system mistakes our cells or tissues for pathogens and attacks them. In addition, studies show that tumor proliferation and metastasis may occur when inflammatory cytokines create a microenvironment conducive to cancer progression. Key biomarkers involved in inflammation and immune response are shown in Figure 1.
Acute versus chronic inflammation
Acute inflammation is a short-lived response that is characterized by extravasation of leukocytes, erythrocytes, and plasma components into the injured tissue. If left unchecked, the acute inflammatory process can lead to chronic inflammation. Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is characterized primarily by tissue infiltration by lymphocytes and macrophages. Chronic inflammation is closely associated with allergy, atherosclerosis, cancer, arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease, as well as autoimmune diseases. The process of acute inflammation is well defined, but the causes of chronic inflammation and its associated molecular and cellular pathways are still not well understood.
The critical balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators
The overall effect of an inflammatory response is dictated by the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 beta, IL-6, and TNF alpha are responsible for early responses and amplify inflammatory reactions, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines, which include IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13, have the opposite effect in that they limit the inflammatory reactions. The increasing complexity of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine networks has made it crucial to examine them in relevant functional groups rather than individually.
Hyper-Inflammation and cytokine storm
A typical immune response involves production of cytokines that orchestrate the differentiation of lymphocytes based on the type of pathogen being cleared. Ultimately the immune system self-regulates and shuts down once the infection is resolved. In some cases, however, the immune response does not shut down, and there is an overproduction of inflammatory cytokines that causes systemic damage to host cells.
The cytokine storm or cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is characterized by an aggressive pro-inflammatory response in combination with an insufficient anti-inflammatory response, which results in the loss of homeostasis of the immune response. The key factors identified in the pathology of a cytokine storm are TNF alpha, Interferons, IL-1 beta, MCP-1 (CCL2), and most importantly IL-6 [1].
Activation of mainly T cells or lysis of immune cells induces a release of IFN gamma or TNF alpha. This leads to the activation of macrophages, dendritic cells, other immune cells, and endothelial cells. After activation, these cells further release proinflammatory cytokines. Large amounts of Interleukin 6 (IL-6) are produced by macrophages and endothelial cells, activating T cells and other immune cells and creating a positive feedback-loop that results in a cytokine storm, inducing the release of many more cytokines and chemokines but also upregulating acute phase proteins. The resulting cytokine storm syndromes are heterogeneous but have the described immune dysregulation in common, leading to hyperinflammation, fever, cytopenia, splenomegaly, hepatitis, coagulopathy, and may result in fatal multisystem organ dysfunction.
Infectious diseases associated with a hyperreactive immune system may be caused by different pathogens, such as bacteria (e.g. toxic shock syndrome (TSS)) and viruses (e.g. Influenza, Epstein-Barr Virus, SARS and SARS CoV-2). In addition, the cytokine storm has been described in therapeutic environments such as immunotherapy and CAR-T cell therapy in cancer. Treatment of patients with therapeutic monoclonal antibodies may stimulate a massive cytokine release syndrome leading to life threatening side effects of immunotherapy [2]. Exposure to organic pollutants could elicit a hyper reactive immune response while exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to increased serum levels of cytokines associated with a cytokine storm [3].
Figure 1. Key players in inflammation and immune response. Inflammation research is a large area of study that involves many cell types, cytokines, chemokines, and other biological targets. The influence of different cytokines on cell types can elicit many types of immunological responses, from fevers to infections to anaphylaxis.
Learn more about cytokine storms
Inflammation-specific ELISA Kits
Inflammation and cytokine release syndrome (CRS) are complex processes that play crucial roles in many diseases and conditions, including autoimmune disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. To support inflammation and cytokine storm research, different types of ELISA kits are available. By measuring the levels of specific cytokines and inflammatory markers, researchers can gain valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of these conditions and develop novel therapeutic strategies.
Invitrogen ELISA kits are user-friendly, providing detailed instructions for sample preparation, assay procedure, and data analysis. They are compatible with a variety of sample types, including serum, plasma, cell culture supernatants, and tissue lysates, offering flexibility for researchers working with diverse biological matrices. These kits provide a reliable and accurate method to measure the levels of various cytokines and inflammatory markers in biological samples. Targets include pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1 beta, IL-6, and TNF alpha, as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 (Table 1). A few examples of published data using cytokine and inflammation ELISA kits are highlighted in Table 2.
In addition, high sensitivity formats are also available, which have been specifically designed to detect and quantify low levels of cytokines and inflammatory markers in biological samples. Researchers can achieve even greater accuracy and precision in their measurements, allowing for more detailed analysis and interpretation of their data. Figure 2 shows standard curve of Human IL-8/NAP-1 using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit and IL-8 Human ELISA Kit, Ultrasensitive.
Search inflammation ELISA kits
Learn more about ELISA kits and components
Popular inflammation research protein targets and ELISA performance data
Table 1. View our ELISA kits for the following popular targets:
Figure 2. Representative data using Invitrogen IL-8 Human ELISA and Ultrasensitive ELISA. ELISA was performed using human interleukin 8 (Hu IL-8) ranging from 0–1,000 pg/ml (0, 15.6, 31.2, 62.5, 125, 250, 500, and 1,000 pg/mL) using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit and 0–12.5 pg/ml (0, 0.39, 0.78, 1.56, 3.12, 6.25, 12.5, 25 pg/mL) using IL-8 Human ELISA Kit, Ultrasensitive. Absorbance was measured at 450 nm and standard curve was plotted.
Table 2. List of publications highlighting Invitrogen ELISA kits used in cytokine storm and inflammation research.
| Reference | Publication Summary | Target/s | Testing method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Li et al. 2023 | The level of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-6 in lung tissue and serum were measured and multifunctional nanoparticle was developed that could be used for the treatment of pneumonia and sepsis by alleviating cytokine storms. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Rat ELISA Kit |
IL-6 | IL-6 Rat ELISA Kit | ||
| Rubas et al. 2024 | Study of obesity-related post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) to examine immune activity and gut microbiome dysbiosis. Multiple biomarkers were assessed and proinflammatory immune profiling was performed using ELISA and Luminex. Results indicated high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein as a candidate biomarker of PASC, with potential applications for risk assessment and targeted therapies. | BAFF | BAFF Human Instant ELISA Kit |
CRP | CRP Human Instant ELISA Kit | ||
| Kang et al. 2023 | Analysis of cytokines in severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) and COVID-19 patients and their implications in hyperinflammation and cytokine release syndrome. | TGF beta | |
| Investigation of effects of spike protein on human lung macrophage (HLM) activation and involvement of HLMs in lung injury, immunological dysfunction, and respiratory disease. | IL-1 beta | ||
| Huo et al. 2023 | Study of the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of melatonin on Influenza A virus (IAV) H1N1 infection. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Mouse ELISA Kit |
| IL-1 beta | IL-1 beta Mouse ELISA Kit | ||
| IL-6 | IL-6 Mouse ELISA Kit | ||
| Histamine | Histamine Competitive ELISA Kit | ||
| Tryptase | Human Tryptase beta-2/TPSB2 ELISA Kit | ||
| Su et al. 2020 | Identification and screening of potential anti-inflammatory small molecules to find effective low-toxic drugs to mitigate cytokine storm syndrome (CSS). This study led to the discovery of two anti-cytokine storm agents, entecavir and imipenem that significantly inhibit the secretion of TNF alpha and other cytokines in mouse model. | TNF alpha | TNF alpha Mouse ELISA Kit |
Inflammation research ProQuantum high sensitivity immunoassays
ProQuantum immunoassays are ready-to-use kits that provide an easy and fast method of measuring target-specific protein analytes with high specificity and sensitivity using very less amount of sample. These assays utilize proximity-based amplification technology to combine antigen-antibody binding for analyte detection with qPCR signal amplification to achieve a simple yet powerful next-generation protein quantitation platform.
Invitrogen ProQuantum immunoassay kits for popular targets such as IL-6, IL-8, TNF alpha etc. implicated in inflammation and cytokine storm research are listed in Table 3. Standard curve of IL-8 using curve for IL-8 Human ProQuantum Immunoassay Kit is shown in Figure 3.
Find inflammation-related ProQuantum assays
Learn more about how the ProQuantum immunoassays work
Read BioProbes Journal article: Introducing ProQuantum High-Sensitivity Immunoassays—The new generation of target-specific protein quantitation
Popular inflammation research protein targets and ProQuantum assay performance data
Table 3. Inflammation-related ProQuantum immunoassays. View our ProQuantum immunoassay kits for the following popular targets:
Figure 3. Representative standard curve for Human IL-8/NAP-1. The standard curve for IL-8 Human ProQuantum Immunoassay Kit shows a broad dynamic range (0.0128–5,000 pg/mL) of IL-8 protein.
Cytokine storm and inflammation ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays
Invitrogen ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays provide a comprehensive range of panels to study inflammation and cytokine profile. These assays allow researchers to simultaneously measure up to 80 soluble immune biomarkers in a single sample and precisely quantify their expression levels in biological samples, such as blood or tissue, with high sensitivity and specificity. A few examples of published data using inflammation and cytokine panels are highlighted in Table 4.
The multiplex capability of ProcartaPlex assays significantly improves efficiency and reduces sample volume requirements, allowing for cost-effective and time-efficient cytokine profiling. Since many different causes and pathologic conditions for the induction of a cytokine storm exist, and not all syndromes involving cytokine release result in the same pathogenic cytokine profile, it is important to analyze the level of a broader panel of immunomodulatory markers to get the full picture of the immune status of a patient.
Select one of our preconfigured panels described in Table 5 or use the Panel Configurator below to customize your own specific panel.
ProcartaPlex Panel Configurator
Learn more about ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassays
Table 4. List of publications highlighting Invitrogen ProcartaPlex inflammation and cytokine panels.
| Reference | Publication summary | ProcartaPlex Panels used (Custom/Preconfigured) |
|---|---|---|
Investigating the effect of a single fentanyl overdose in mice reveals prolonged cardiopulmonary dysregulation and significant dysregulated cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor concentrations. | ||
| Kessel et al. 2021 | Definition and validation of serum biomarkers for differentiation of rheumatic conditions in children such as macrophage activation syndrome and inherited cytotoxicity defects (primary or secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis). This study aims to define treatment plans and reduce cytokine storm complications. | Custom ProcartaPlex Design |
| Lapuente et al. 2022 | Evaluation of safety and efficacy of PRS CK STORM as an intravenous drug to prevent and treat the cytokine storm associated with infectious processes, including COVID-19. | ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine/Chemokine/Growth Factor Panel 1, 45plex |
| Trifonova et al. 2023 | Study of inflammatory biomarkers in COVID-19 patients and correlation of lymphopoietic, proinflammatory, Th1, Th2, regulatory cytokines, and chemokines with disease severity. | ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Panel 1B, 25plex |
| ProcartaPlex Human Chemokine Panel 1, 9plex | ||
| Verna et al. 2021 | Comprehensive map of the inflammatory response to LPS by myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and study of the modulatory effect of quercetin exposure in mDCs and pDCs. | ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 36plex |
| Musiu et al. 2022 | Investigation of the pathophysiology of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) in mice and human samples and demonstration of the pivotal role of FLIP-expressing myeloid cells as a driver of CRS. | ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Panel 1A, 36plex |
| ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Panel 1B, 25Plex |
“I had a positive experience using the Invitrogen ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Monitoring Panel, 48plex and intend to use more in the future. I always looked forward to running the plate, because it was extremely simple and short. While our initial study design did not include a ton of analytes, we were able to assay more than twice what we had budgeted for. I would not have dreamt of looking at some of the analytes in the kit I ran, but they’ve completely changed my understanding of cardiac inflammation after fentanyl overdose survival.”
―Mackenzie Newman, Ph.D., M.Sc
Bioimaging and Applied Research Core (BARC) Manager
Virginia Commonwealth University
Table 5. Preconfigured ProcartaPlex multiplex immunoassay panels for inflammation and cytokine storm research.
| Product Name | Size | Cat. No. |
| Human Cytokine Assays | ||
ProcartaPlex Human Immune Response Panel, 80plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Immune Monitoring Panel, 65plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine/Chemokine/Growth Factor Convenience Panel 1, 45plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 34plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Cytokine Storm Panel, 21plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Human Inflammation Panel, 20plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
| Mouse Cytokine Assays | ||
ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Response Panel, 64plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Mouse Immune Monitoring Panel, 48plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
ProcartaPlex Mouse Cytokine & Chemokine Convenience Panel 1A, 36plex Target list [bead region]: | 96 tests | |
Cytokine storm and inflammation QuantiGene multiplex immunoassays
QuantiGene assays are highly sensitive and specific for the detection and quantification of DNA and RNA targets. This technology utilizes branched DNA signal amplification to enable the measurement of gene expression levels in a variety of sample types, including blood, tissue, and cell lysates. Researchers can measure up to 80 genes in a single sample that focus on inflammation and cytokine release syndrome and immune response, including cytokines, chemokines, receptors, and other key regulatory molecules. A few examples of published data using QuantiGene to study inflammation and cytokine storm research are highlighted in Table 6.
There are several advantages to bead-based assays over traditional methods of gene expression analysis. QuantiGene provides a highly multiplexed approach, allowing for the simultaneous measurement of multiple targets in a single sample using the same Luminex xMAP technology as ProcartaPlex. This capability not only helps save time and resources but also provides a more comprehensive understanding of gene expression patterns. The assay is also highly sensitive, enabling the detection of low-abundance targets with high precision.
QuantiGene gene expression assays are versatile tools that can be customized to help meet your specific research needs. You can choose from a selection of preconfigured panels, each targeting a specific set of genes or pathways of interest (Table 7) or use the Panel Configurator below to create your own customized panel.
Learn more about QuantiGene multiplex immunoassays
Table 6. List of publications highlighting QuantiGene assays for studying cytokine storm and inflammation.
| Reference | Publication summary |
| Saulle et al. 2023 | Salivary miRNA profiles were examined in COVID-19 patients with different diseases severities. Cytokine storm was more prevalent in severe patients, where mRNA levels of 40 genes were tested in PBMCs using a custom QuantiGene Plex panel. |
| Chan et al. 2022 | Evaluation of a therapeutic combinatorial agent that elicits broad innate immune responses such production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. A custom QuantiGene Plex panel was used to observe transcriptional changes of cytokine and chemokines in mice. |
| Feng et al. 2019 | Study of how interferon-beta therapy corrects gene dysregulation in MS, along with correcting cytokine storm during remission and attacks. QuantiGene assays were used to measure RNA levels of cytokines and chemokines in treated and untreated MS patients, along with healthy controls. |
| Cappelletti et al. 2023 | Investigation of the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on human iPSC-derived motor neurons. QuantiGene assays were used to analyze viral RNA genes in infected motor neurons and were found to significantly alter the genetic profile of associated inflammatory response. |
| Meadows et al. 2018 | Fibrotic, inflammation, and IFN-induced genes in kidneys were analyzed using a custom QuantiGene panel to assess the impact of a potential treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus. |
Table 7. Preconfigured QuantiGene gene expression multiplex immunoassay panels for inflammation research.
| Product Name | Size (96-well) | Cat. No. |
| Human Immune and Inflammation Panels | ||
QuantiGene Plex Human Immune Response Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-10080 |
| 3 plates | QGP-280-10080 | |
| 10 plates | QGP-380-10080 | |
QuantiGene Plex Human PanCancer Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-HUPANCANCER |
3 plates | QGP-280-HUPANCANCER | |
10 plates | QGP-380-HUPANCANCER | |
QuantiGene Plex Human Virus-Host Panel, 50-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-HUVIRHOST1 |
3 plates | QGP-HUVIRHOST3 | |
10 plates | QGP-HUVIRHOST10 | |
QuantiGene Plex Human Housekeeping Gene Panel, 30-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-130-HUHKPANEL |
3 plates | QGP-230-HUHKPANEL | |
10 plates | QGP-330-HUHKPANEL | |
| Mouse Immune and Inflammation Panels | ||
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Immune Response Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-20064 |
3 plates | QGP-280-20064 | |
10 plates | QGP-380-20064 | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse PanCancer Panel, 80-plex Target list: | 1 plate | QGP-180-MSPANCANCER |
3 plates | QGP-280-MSPANCANCER | |
10 plates | QGP-380-MSPANCANCER | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Virus-Host Panel, 50-plex Target list: | 1 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST1 |
3 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST3 | |
10 plates | QGP-MSVIRHOST10 | |
QuantiGene Plex Mouse Housekeeping Gene Panel, 27-plex Target list: | 1 plates | QGP-127-MSHKPANEL |
| 3 plates | QGP-227-MSHKPANEL | |
| 10 plates | QGP-327-MSHKPANEL | |
Additional resources for Cytokine Storm and Inflammation Immunoassays
Immunoassay instruments
References
- Tisoncik J.R., Korth M.J., Simmons C.P., et al. Into the eye of the cytokine storm. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 2012. 76(1): 16-32.
- Shimabukuro-Vornhagen A., Gödel P., Subklewe M., et al. Cytokine release syndrome. J Immunother Cancer, 2018. 6(1): 56.
- Cheng Z., Huo X., Dai Y., et al. Elevated expression of AhR and NLRP3 link polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure to cytokine storm in preschool children. Environ Int, 2020. 139: 105720.
- Liu Q., Zhou Y.H., Yang Z.Q., et al. The cytokine storm of severe influenza and development of immunomodulatory therapy. Cell Mol Immunol, 2016. 13(1): 3-10.
- Weaver L.K., Behrens E.M. Weathering the storm: Improving therapeutic interventions for cytokine storm syndromes by targeting disease pathogenesis. Curr Treatm Opt Rheumatol, 2017. 3(1): 33-48.
- Francois B., Jeannet R., Daix T., et al. Interleukin-7 restores lymphocytes in septic shock: the IRIS-7 randomized clinical trial. JCI Insight, 2018. 3(5): e98960.
- Thevarajan I., Nguyen T.H.O., Koutsakos M., et al. Breadth of concomitant immune responses prior to patient recovery: a case report of non-severe COVID-19. Nat Med, 2020. 26(4): 453-455.
- Zhou F., Yu T., Du R., Fan G., et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet, 2020. 395(10229): 1054-1062.
- Moore J.B., June C.H. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science, 2020. 368(6490): 473-474.
- Li Z., Feng Y., Zhang S., et al. A Multifunctional Nanoparticle Mitigating Cytokine Storm by Scavenging Multiple Inflammatory Mediators of Sepsis. ACS Nano, 2023. 17(9): 8551-8563.
- Rubas N.C., Peres R., Kunihiro B.P., et al. HMGB1 mediates microbiome-immune axis dysregulation underlying reduced neutralization capacity in obesity-related post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2. Sci Rep, 2024. 14(1): 355.
- Kang S.Y., Yoo J.R., Park Y., et al. Fatal outcome of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) and severe and critical COVID-19 is associated with the hyperproduction of IL-10 and IL-6 and the low production of TGF-β. J Med Virol, 2023. 95(7): e28894.
- Palestra F., Poto R., Ciardi R., et al. SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Activates Human Lung Macrophages. Int J Mol Sci, 2023. 24(3): 3036.
- Huo C., Tang Y., Li X., et al. Melatonin alleviates lung injury in H1N1-infected mice by mast cell inactivation and cytokine storm suppression. PLoS Pathog, 2023. 19(5): e1011406.
- Su L., Tu Y., Kong D.P., et al. Drug repurposing of anti-infective clinical drugs: Discovery of two potential anti-cytokine storm agents. Biomed Pharmacother, 2020. 131: 110643.
- Kessel C., Fall N., Grom A., et al. Definition and validation of serum biomarkers for optimal differentiation of hyperferritinaemic cytokine storm conditions in children: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol, 2021. 3(8): e563-e573.
- Lapuente J.P., Gómez G., Marco-Brualla J., et al. Evaluation in a Cytokine Storm Model In Vivo of the Safety and Efficacy of Intravenous Administration of PRS CK STORM (Standardized Conditioned Medium Obtained by Coculture of Monocytes and Mesenchymal Stromal Cells). Biomedicines, 2022. 10(5): 1094.
- Trifonova I., Ngoc K., Nikolova M., et al. Patterns of cytokine and chemokine expression in peripheral blood of patients with COVID-19 associated with disease severity. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol, 2023. 37: 3946320231163681.
- Verna G., Liso M., Cavalcanti E., et al. Quercetin Administration Suppresses the Cytokine Storm in Myeloid and Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells. Int J Mol Sci, 2021. 22(15): 8349.
- Musiu C., Caligola S., Fiore A., et al. Fatal cytokine release syndrome by an aberrant FLIP/STAT3 axis. Cell Death Differ, 2022. 29(2): 420-438.
- Saulle I., Garziano M., Cappelletti G., et al. Salivary miRNA Profiles in COVID-19 Patients with Different Disease Severities. Int J Mol Sci, 2023. 24(13): 10992.
- Chan A.S.H., Kangas T.O., Qiu X., et al. Imprime PGG Enhances Anti-Tumor Effects of Tumor-Targeting, Anti-Angiogenic, and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Antibodies. Front Oncol. 2022. 12: 869078.
- Feng X., Bao R., Li L., et al. Interferon-β corrects massive gene dysregulation in multiple sclerosis: Short-term and long-term effects on immune regulation and neuroprotection. EBioMedicine. 2019. 49: 269-283.
- Cappelletti G, Colombrita C, Limanaqi F, Invernizzi S, Garziano M, Vanetti C, Moscheni C, Santangelo S, Zecchini S, Trabattoni D, Silani V, Clerici M, Ratti A, Biasin M. Human motor neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Cell Neurosci. 2023. 17: 1285836.
- Taylor Meadows K.R., Steinberg M.W., Clemons B., et al. Ozanimod (RPC1063), a selective S1PR1 and S1PR5 modulator, reduces chronic inflammation and alleviates kidney pathology in murine systemic lupus erythematosus. PLoS One. 2018. 13(4): e0193236.
For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures.